Optimized microburst VNS elicits fMRI responses beyond thalamic-specific response from standard VNS.

OBJECTIVE: In parallel to standard vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), microburst stimulation delivery has been developed. We evaluated the fMRI-related signal changes associated with standard and optimized microburst stimulation in a proof-of-concept study (NCT03446664). METHODS: Twenty-nine drug-resistant epilepsy patients were prospectively implanted with VNS. Three 3T fMRI scans were collected 2 weeks postimplantation. The maximum tolerated VNS intensity was determined prior to each scan starting at 0.125 mA with 0.125 mA increments. FMRI scans were block-design with alternating 30 sec stimulation [ON] and 30 sec no stimulation [OFF]: Scan 1 utilized standard VNS and Scan 3 optimized microburst parameters to determine target settings. Semi-automated on-site fMRI data processing utilized ON-OFF block modeling to determine VNS-related fMRI activation per stimulation setting. Anatomical thalamic mask was used to derive highest mean thalamic t-value for determination of microburst stimulation parameters. Paired t-tests corrected at P < 0.05 examined differences in fMRI responses to each stimulation type. RESULTS: Standard and microburst stimulation intensities at Scans 1 and 3 were similar (P = 0.16). Thalamic fMRI responses were obtained in 28 participants (19 with focal; 9 with generalized seizures). Group activation maps showed standard VNS elicited thalamic activation while optimized microburst VNS showed widespread activation patterns including thalamus. Comparison of stimulation types revealed significantly greater cerebellar, midbrain, and parietal fMRI signal changes in microburst compared to standard VNS. These differences were not associated with seizure responses. INTERPRETATION: While standard and optimized microburst VNS elicited thalamic activation, microburst also engaged other brain regions. Relationship between these fMRI activation patterns and clinical response warrants further investigation. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: The study was registered with clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03446664).

Feasibility study of microburst VNS therapy in drug-resistant focal and generalized epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) at low frequencies (≤30 Hz) has been an established treatment for drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE) for over 25 years. OBJECTIVE: To examine the initial safety and efficacy performance of an investigational, high-frequency (≥250 Hz) VNS paradigm herein called "Microburst VNS" (µVNS). µVNS consists of short, high-frequency bursts of electrical pulses believed to preferentially modulate certain brain regions. METHODS: Thirty-three (33) participants were enrolled into an exploratory feasibility study, 21 with focal-onset seizures and 12 with generalized-onset seizures. Participants were titrated to a personalized target dose of µVNS using an investigational fMRI protocol. Participants were then followed for up to 12 months, with visits every 3 months, and monitored for side-effects at all time points. This study was registered as NCT03446664 on February 27th, 2018. RESULTS: The device was well-tolerated. Reported adverse events were consistent with typical low frequency VNS outcomes and tended to diminish in severity over time, including dysphonia, cough, dyspnea, and implant site pain. After 12 months of µVNS, the mean seizure frequency reduction for all seizures was 61.3% (median reduction: 70.4%; 90% CI of median: 48.9%-83.3%). The 12-month responder rate (≥50% reduction) was 63.3% (90% CI: 46.7%-77.9%) and the super-responder rate (≥80% reduction) was 40% (90% CI: 25.0%-56.6%). Participants with focal-onset seizures appeared to benefit similarly to participants with generalized-onset seizures (mean reduction in seizures at 12 months: 62.6% focal [n = 19], versus 59.0% generalized [n = 11]). CONCLUSION: Overall, µVNS appears to be safe and potentially a promising therapeutic alternative to traditional VNS. It merits further investigation in randomized controlled trials which will help determine the impact of investigational variables and which patients are most suitable for this novel therapy.

ASCEND: A randomized controlled trial of titration strategies for vagus nerve stimulation in drug-resistant epilepsy.

Vagus Nerve Stimulation (VNS) therapy is widely understood to provide clinically meaningful improvements in seizure control to patients with drug-resistant epilepsy, and has been a staple in the clinical armamentaria available to epileptologists for over 25 years. Despite the long history of evidence-based reviews by neurology professional societies, there is still evidence of a practice gap in VNS titration and dosing that aims to maximize clinical benefit. Recent retrospective analyses have strongly argued for a more consistent application of a population-wide target dose of VNS, and further argued the importance of quickly achieving this target dose to hasten the onset of clinical benefits; however, these analyses failed to provide evidence for practical implementation. Herein, we describe a randomized controlled trial assessing the impact of titrating VNS according to three different protocols to achieve the target dose of 1.5 mA at 500µsec, for a 20-Hz signal frequency. The study was registered as NCT02385526 on March 11, 2015. Sixty-two patients were randomized into treatment groups that followed different titration protocols. One protocol (Group A) was designed to align with currently accepted professional guidance for VNS titration and the manufacturer's labeling for VNS in epilepsy (Heck et al., 2002), while the other two protocols were derived from VNS applications in other therapeutic areas. Group A participants were most likely to achieve the target dose parameters in 12 weeks or less (81.8%), with a median time-until-achievement of the target dose of 8.1 weeks, while less than 60% of patients in other groups were able to achieve the same endpoint. Participants in all groups experienced low levels of transient tolerability concerns and adverse events, suggesting titration to the target dose in 12 weeks or less following the Group A protocol is generally acceptable to most patients. These findings indicate that patients receiving VNS for epilepsy can achieve the manufacturer-recommended dose range in 12 weeks or less. A wider implementation of the approach will likely improve the clinical impact of VNS on seizure control and prevent undertreatment.

Modulation of the thalamus by microburst vagus nerve stimulation: a feasibility study protocol.

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) was the first device-based therapy for epilepsy, having launched in 1994 in Europe and 1997 in the United States. Since then, significant advances in the understanding of the mechanism of action of VNS and the central neurocircuitry that VNS modulates have impacted how the therapy is practically implemented. However, there has been little change to VNS stimulation parameters since the late 1990s. Short bursts of high frequency stimulation have been of increasing interest to other neuromodulation targets e.g., the spine, and these high frequency bursts elicit unique effects in the central nervous system, especially when applied to the vagus nerve. In the current study, we describe a protocol design that is aimed to assess the impact of high frequency bursts of stimulation, called "Microburst VNS", in subjects with refractory focal and generalized epilepsies treated with this novel stimulation pattern in addition to standard anti-seizure medications. This protocol also employed an investigational, fMRI-guided titration protocol that permits personalized dosing of Microburst VNS among the treated population depending on the thalamic blood-oxygen-level-dependent signal. The study was registered on clinicaltrials.gov (NCT03446664). The first subject was enrolled in 2018 and the final results are expected in 2023.

Vagus nerve stimulation parameters evoke differential neuronal responses in the locus coeruleus.

Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) is used to treat drug-resistant epilepsy and depression, with additional applications under investigation. The noradrenergic center locus coeruleus (LC) is vital for VNS effects; however, the impact of varying stimulation parameters on LC activation is poorly understood. This study characterized LC activation across VNS parameters. Extracellular activity was recorded in rats' left LC while 11 VNS paradigms, utilizing variable frequencies and bursting characteristics, were pseudorandomly delivered to the left cervical vagus for five cycles. Neurons' change from baseline firing rate and timing response profiles were assessed. The proportion of neurons categorized as responders over 5 VNS cycles doubled in comparison to the first VNS cycle (p < 0.001) for all VNS paradigms, demonstrating an amplification effect. The percentage of positively consistent/positive responders increased for standard VNS paradigms with frequencies ≥10 Hz and for bursting paradigms with shorter interburst intervals and more pulses per burst. The synchrony between pairs of LC neurons increased during bursting VNS but not standard paradigms. Also, the probability of evoking a direct response during bursting VNS was higher with longer interburst intervals and a higher number of pulses per burst. Standard paradigms between 10-30 Hz best positively activates LC with consistency to VNS while the best bursting paradigm to increase activity was 300 Hz, seven pulses per burst separated by 1 s. Bursting VNS was effective in increasing synchrony between pairs of neurons, suggesting a common network recruitment originating from vagal afferents. These results indicate differential activation of LC neurons depending on the VNS parameters delivered.

Spatially selective stimulation of the pig vagus nerve to modulate target effect versus side effect.

Electrical stimulation of the cervical vagus nerve using implanted electrodes (VNS) is FDA-approved for the treatment of drug-resistant epilepsy, treatment-resistant depression, and most recently, chronic ischemic stroke rehabilitation. However, VNS is critically limited by the unwanted stimulation of nearby neck muscles-a result of non-specific stimulation activating motor nerve fibers within the vagus. Prior studies suggested that precise placement of small epineural electrodes can modify VNS therapeutic effects, such as cardiac responses. However, it remains unclear if placement can alter the balance between intended effect and limiting side effect. We used an FDA investigational device exemption approved six-contact epineural cuff to deliver VNS in pigs and quantified how epineural electrode location impacts on- and off-target VNS activation. Detailed post-mortem histology was conducted to understand how the underlying neuroanatomy impacts observed functional responses. Here we report the discovery and characterization of clear neuroanatomy-dependent differences in threshold and saturation for responses related to both effect (change in heart rate) and side effect (neck muscle contractions). The histological and electrophysiological data were used to develop and validate subject-specific computation models of VNS, creating a well-grounded quantitative framework to optimize electrode location-specific activation of nerve fibers governing intended effect versus unwanted side effect.

Rapid titration of VNS therapy reduces time-to-response in epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: Common titration strategies for vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) prioritize monitoring of tolerability during small increases in stimulation intensity over several months. Prioritization of tolerability is partially based on how quickly side effects can be perceived and reported by patients, and the delayed onset of clinical benefits from VNS. However, many practices assess the clinical benefit of VNS at one year after implantation, and excessive caution during the titration phase can significantly delay target dosing or prevent a patient from reaching a therapeutic dose entirely. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to characterize the relationship between titration speed and the onset of clinical response to VNS. METHODS: To assess differences between more aggressive titration strategies and more conservative ones, we analyzed the relationship between time-to-dose and time-to-response using a weighted Cox regression. The target dose was empirically defined as 1.625 mA output current delivered at 250 microsecond pulse widths at 20 Hz. Patient-level outcomes and dosing data were segregated into fast (<3 months), medium (3-6 months), and slow (>6 months) cohorts based on their titration speed. RESULTS: The statistical model revealed a significant relationship between titration speed and onset of clinical response, defined as a 50% reduction from baseline in seizure frequency. Frequency of adverse events reported between each cohort trended toward higher rates of adverse events in adults who were titrated quickly; however, the pediatric population appeared to be more tolerant of titration at any speed. CONCLUSIONS: This analysis indicates that faster titration yields faster onset of clinical benefit and is especially practical in the pediatric population, though attempts to accelerate adult titration may still be warranted.

Vagus nerve stimulation therapy in people with drug-resistant epilepsy (CORE-VNS): rationale and design of a real-world post-market comprehensive outcomes registry.

INTRODUCTION: The Vagus Nerve Stimulation Therapy System (VNS Therapy) is an adjunctive neuromodulatory therapy that can be efficacious in reducing the frequency and severity of seizures in people with drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE). CORE-VNS aims to examine the long-term safety and clinical outcomes of VNS in people with DRE. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The CORE-VNS study is an international, multicentre, prospective, observational, all-comers, post-market registry. People with DRE receiving VNS Therapy for the first time as well as people being reimplanted with VNS Therapy are eligible. Participants have a baseline visit (prior to device implant). They will be followed for a minimum of 36 months and a maximum of 60 months after implant. Analysis endpoints include seizure frequency (average number of events per month), seizure severity (individual-rated categorical outcome including very mild, mild, moderate, severe or very severe) as well as non-seizure outcomes such as adverse events, use of antiseizure medications, use of other non-pharmacological therapies, quality of life, validated measures of quality of sleep (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index or Children's Sleep Habit Questionnaire) and healthcare resource utilisation. While the CORE-VNS registry was not expressly designed to test hypotheses, subgroup analyses and exploratory analysis that require hypothesis testing will be conducted across propensity score matched treatment groups, where possible based on sampling. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: The CORE-VNS registry has already enrolled 823 participants from 61 centres across 15 countries. Once complete, CORE-VNS will represent one of the largest real-world clinical data sets to allow a more comprehensive understanding of the management of DRE with adjunctive VNS. Manuscripts derived from this database will shed important new light on the characteristics of people receiving VNS Therapy; the practical use of VNS across different countries, and factors influencing long-term response. TRAIL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT03529045.

Frequency of Automatic Stimulations in Responsive Vagal Nerve Stimulation in Patients With Refractory Epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: In vagal nerve stimulation (VNS) therapy, the release of VNS model 106 (AspireSR) allowed for responsive VNS (rVNS). rVNS utilizes a cardiac-based seizure detection algorithm to detect seizure-induced tachycardia to trigger additional stimulation. There are some studies suggesting clinical benefits of rVNS over traditional VNS, but the performance and significance of autostimulation mode in clinical practice are poorly understood. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effect of initiation of rVNS therapy and altered stimulation settings on the number of daily stimulations and energy consumption in VNS therapy and to compare autostimulation performance in different epilepsy types. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Retrospective follow-up of 30 patients with drug-resistant epilepsy treated with rVNS including 17 new implantations and 13 battery replaces at a single center in Finland. Our data consist of 208 different stimulation periods, that is, episodes with defined stimulation settings and both autostimulation and total stimulation performance-related data along with clinical follow-up. RESULTS: The variation in autostimulation frequency was highly dependent on the duration of the OFF-time and autostimulation threshold (p < 0.05). There was a large additional effect of autostimulation mode on therapy time and energy consumption with longer OFF-times, but a minor effect with shorter OFF-times. Significantly more autostimulations were triggered in the temporal lobe and multifocal epilepsies than in extratemporal lobe epilepsies. CONCLUSIONS: The initiation of autostimulation mode in VNS therapy increased the total number of stimulations. Shortening the OFF-time leads to a decreased number and share of automatic activations. Epilepsy type may affect autostimulation activity.

Differential effects of vagus nerve stimulation paradigms guide clinical development for Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) modifies brain rhythms in the locus coeruleus (LC) via the solitary nucleus. Degeneration of the LC in Parkinson's disease (PD) is an early catalyst of the spreading neurodegenerative process, suggesting that stimulating LC output with VNS has the potential to modify disease progression. We previously showed in a lesion PD model that VNS delivered twice daily reduced neuroinflammation and motor deficits, and attenuated tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive cell loss. OBJECTIVE: The goal of this study was to characterize the differential effects of three clinically-relevant VNS paradigms in a PD lesion model. METHODS: Eleven days after DSP-4 (N-(2-chloroethyl)-N-ethyl-2-bromobenzylamine, noradrenergic lesion, administered systemically)/6-OHDA (6-hydroxydopamine, dopaminergic lesion, administered intrastriatally) rats were implanted with VNS devices, and received either low-frequency VNS, standard-frequency VNS, or high-frequency microburst VNS. After 10 days of treatment and behavioral assessment, rats were euthanized, right prefrontal cortex (PFC) was dissected for norepinephrine assessment, and the left striatum, bilateral substantia nigra (SN), and LC were sectioned for immunohistochemical detection of catecholamine neurons, α-synuclein, astrocytes, and microglia. RESULTS: At higher VNS frequencies, specifically microburst VNS, greater improvements occurred in motor function, attenuation of TH-positive cell loss in SN and LC, and norepinephrine concentration in the PFC. Additionally, higher VNS frequencies resulted in lower intrasomal α-synuclein accumulation and glial density in the SN. CONCLUSIONS: These data indicate that higher stimulation frequencies provided the greatest attenuation of behavioral and pathological markers in this PD model, indicating therapeutic potential for these VNS paradigms.

Circadian distribution of autostimulations in rVNS therapy in patients with refractory focal epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: Responsive vagus nerve stimulation (rVNS) utilizes an electrocardiograph (ECG)-based algorithm to detect rapid sympathetic activations associated with the onset of a seizure. Abrupt sympathetic activation may also be associated with nocturnal arousals between sleep cycles or transitioning from sleep to wakefulness, a period in which many patients with epilepsy experience seizures. Because of circadian changes in autonomic function, we hypothesized that the autostimulation feature might also behave in a circadian fashion. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to assess the circadian rhythmicity of autostimulations in rVNS treatment in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed a retrospective follow-up study of 30 patients with DRE treated with rVNS including 17 new implantations and 13 battery replacements at a single center in Finland. After initiation of autostimulation mode, the exact rVNS stimulation parameters and the timestamps of all individual autostimulations delivered were registered. A clustered autostimulation was defined as any autostimulation that occurred within the duration of the therapeutic cycle during the therapy "OFF" time compared with both the previous autostimulation and the following autostimulation. RESULTS: Autostimulations and especially autostimulation clusters show a higher probability of occurring in the morning and less at night. This trend appeared to follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol concentration. CONCLUSIONS: Early morning peaks of autostimulations at low thresholds may reflect awakening-induced activation of the cardiovascular system, which is associated with a shift towards the dominance of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. Cortisol release occurs in parallel driven by wakening-induced activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which is fine-tuned by direct sympathetic input to the adrenal gland. This is of interest considering the known sympathetic hyperactivity in patients with epilepsy.

Characterization of scale-free properties of human electrocorticography in awake and slow wave sleep States.

Like many complex dynamic systems, the brain exhibits scale-free dynamics that follow power-law scaling. Broadband power spectral density (PSD) of brain electrical activity exhibits state-dependent power-law scaling with a log frequency exponent that varies across frequency ranges. Widely divergent naturally occurring neural states, awake and slow wave sleep (SWS), were used to evaluate the nature of changes in scale-free indices of brain electrical activity. We demonstrate two analytic approaches to characterizing electrocorticographic (ECoG) data obtained during awake and SWS states. A data-driven approach was used, characterizing all available frequency ranges. Using an equal error state discriminator (EESD), a single frequency range did not best characterize state across data from all six subjects, though the ability to distinguish awake and SWS ECoG data in individual subjects was excellent. Multi-segment piecewise linear fits were used to characterize scale-free slopes across the entire frequency range (0.2-200 Hz). These scale-free slopes differed between awake and SWS states across subjects, particularly at frequencies below 10 Hz and showed little difference at frequencies above 70 Hz. A multivariate maximum likelihood analysis (MMLA) method using the multi-segment slope indices successfully categorized ECoG data in most subjects, though individual variation was seen. In exploring the differences between awake and SWS ECoG data, these analytic techniques show that no change in a single frequency range best characterizes differences between these two divergent biological states. With increasing computational tractability, the use of scale-free slope values to characterize ECoG and EEG data will have practical value in clinical and research studies.

Determination of neural state classification metrics from the power spectrum of human ECoG.

Brain electrical activity exhibits scale-free dynamics that follow power law scaling. Previous works have shown that broadband spectral power exhibits state-dependent scaling with a log frequency exponent that systematically varies with neural state. However, the frequency ranges which best characterize biological state are not consistent across brain location or subject. An adaptive piecewise linear fitting solution was developed to extract features for classification of brain state. Performance was evaluated by comparison to an a posteriori based feature search method. This analysis, using the 1/ƒ characteristics of the human ECoG signal, demonstrates utility in advancing the ability to perform automated brain state discrimination.